Introduction
The United States Congress has long treated relations with Turkey as a topic of strategic importance, and the September 15, 2025, report titled “Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations” (R44000) has come to the public’s attention. The report, which evaluates Turkey—a NATO member—as holding a critical position among the United States’ allies in Europe, the Middle East, and Eurasia, states that over the past decade, relations between the two countries have shifted from close cooperation to noticeable tensions. It provides a detailed overview of the complexity of these relations and Congress’s stance on the matter. Prepared by experienced Middle East experts such as Jim Zanotti and Clayton Thomas, the report is designed as a source of information and analysis for Congress members and committees.
This report addresses the main issues affecting US-Turkey relations—such as defense cooperation, developments in Syria, relations with Russia, domestic politics, and economic challenges—while emphasizing Congress’s legislative and oversight roles on these topics. Congress has shaped relations by imposing sanctions and arms sales restrictions in response to steps like Turkey’s 2019 purchase of the Russian S-400 air defense system. According to the report, while Congress members seek to strengthen Turkey’s role within NATO, they also adopt a critical approach toward developments in its domestic politics and its fight against terrorism. The report details Turkey’s position as a “global swing state,” its interest in joining BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), and the future of US-Turkey relations in this context.
Bilateral Relations and Congress’s Role
According to Congress, the historical context of US-Turkey relations begins with NATO membership (since 1952). Turkey, with the second-largest army in NATO, is indispensable for US geopolitical interests. The report notes that the US views Turkey’s NATO membership as a binding element to the West, while Turkey’s geopolitical importance and military power strengthen the alliance’s eastern flank. However, in recent years, deep divisions have emerged between the two countries. In particular, Turkey’s opposition to the US cooperation with the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)—the Syrian branch of the PKK—and the S-400 purchase have strained relations. Congress has played an active role in these issues; for example, following the 2019 S-400 purchase, it suspended F-35 sales and imposed sanctions under the CAATSA (Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act).
The report states that Congress has been insistent on implementing these sanctions. In 2020, the Trump administration imposed defense sanctions on Turkey under pressure from Congress; this affected advanced technology arms sales such as F-16 Viper modernization and F-35. Congress members have introduced legal conditions prohibiting the transfer of F-35s to Turkey without the removal of Russian systems. The report mentions that President Donald Trump was open to F-35 sales on the condition of deactivating the S-400, but emphasizes Congress’s caution on this matter. For instance, in February 2024, a Senate bill on F-16 sales was rejected by a vote of 13-79. Several Congress members have explicitly stated that such arms sales could undermine the military superiority of Israel and Greece.
In addressing developments in Syria, the report shows that Congress’s traditional support for the SDF is showing signs of change. As evidence, it quotes US Ambassador Thomas Barrack’s words: “The SDF is the YPG, and the YPG stems from the PKK,” noting that Congress has evaluated this stance. Congress members have indicated that while they support Turkey’s influence in Syria, they are watching the Turkish-Syrian alliance against Kurdish autonomy with concern. Additionally, the report mentions that the reduction in the number of US troops in Syria in April 2025 indicates a US tendency to withdraw from the region and extend credit to the newly formed government in Syria.
Furthermore, the report addresses allegations of Turkey’s diplomatic support for Hamas and its suspension of goods exports to Israel. In this regard, Congress views these actions as damaging US-Israel relations and notes that some members have proposed additional sanctions on Turkey. On the other hand, Turkey’s role in NATO strengthening efforts following Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine has led Congress to give signals of softening. Congress expresses satisfaction with Turkey’s contributions such as the grain corridor to Ukraine and drone sales, while criticizing Ankara’s economic ties with Russia, particularly energy trade.
Congress’s general stance is built on strategic pragmatism. The report states that members evaluate Turkey’s warm relations with BRICS and SCO in the context of “global swing states.” As Turkey seeks balance between the West and the East, Congress views this behavior as a risk. However, economic benefits such as rare earth elements, defense technology, and energy cooperation are also highlighted. Nevertheless, it is noted that Congress’s negative stance on F-35 sales continues.
Turkey’s Internal Political Developments and Congress’s Perspective
The report’s “Domestic Issues” section examines Turkey’s domestic politics in detail. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the Justice and Development Party (AKP) are highlighted for consolidating power during their 22-year rule. According to the report, Erdoğan is the most influential figure in the Republic of Turkey since its founder, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Following the 2016 coup attempt, he restructured military and civilian institutions, and the Government’s use of emergency powers have been criticized. Congress characterizes these developments as “authoritarianism.”
The 2024 local elections, in which the CHP achieved victory, have focused on the AKP’s efforts to work more on Kurdish voters. Additionally, the harshest steps against the main opposition CHP; Congress has evaluated the arrest of Istanbul Mayor Ekrem İmamoğlu in March 2025 on corruption charges as “politically motivated.”
Congress addresses these developments with reference to other human rights reports and calls for pressure on the government to implement democracy reforms. The report also mentions rumors that the grand congress where CHP leader Özgür Özel was elected could be canceled. US Congress members describe Erdoğan’s strategy of dividing the opposition as “long-term authoritarianism,” and some Democratic members argue that this situation will poison US-Turkey relations.
Turkey’s societal economic difficulties are also on Congress’s radar. Official inflation is over 30%, the highest among OECD countries. The report cites the August 2025 inflation data at 33%; it states that the Turkish Lira has lost 91% of its value against the dollar since 2018. Congress argues that Turkey’s economic instability could weaken its role within NATO. Some members want economic aid to be conditional on certain structural reforms.
In summary, while Republican members prioritize strategic partnership, Democrats focus on human rights. The report quotes Ambassador Barrack’s words—”Turkey’s regional role is not sufficiently appreciated”—as a positive reference, while emphasizing that the US State Department bureaucracy’s antipathy toward Erdoğan leads to a non-objective approach toward Turkey.
Foreign Policy and Defense Issues: Congress’s Strategic Assessment
The report’s “Foreign Policy and Defense Issues” section covers the areas of greatest interest to Congress. First, the US/NATO strategic relationship is addressed. Turkey guards NATO’s eastern flank; the report draws attention to the US military presence in Turkey, illustrated on a map. Congress considers these presences indispensable against Russia and Iran.
Defense cooperation is Congress’s focal point. The F-16 sale was signed in June 2024; however, modernization kits were canceled in November 2024, reducing the value to $7 billion. The report emphasizes Turkey’s domestic modernization capacity and its demand for F-16 source codes. For the F-35, insistence on the S-400 condition continues. Regarding this, Congress approaches Trump’s proposal to move the S-400 to a US base with skepticism.
The Syria section is Congress’s most complex area. The report addresses the transitional government led by HTS following Assad’s fall in December 2024 (HTS was removed from the terrorist organization status in July 2025). Congress views Turkey’s increasing influence in Syria as an opportunity, while supporting the integration of the SDF into the central government. In response to the PKK’s announcement of disarmament in May 2025, Congress predicts a decrease in tension in Syria, stating that this will have positive effects on the security of American troops in Syria and the return of refugees. On the other hand, it expresses discomfort with periodic armed clashes between the SDF and the Damascus administration, while emphasizing that the parties must sincerely adhere to the May 2025 agreement initiated by Tom Barrack in Damascus to bring the sides together. In this context, it also draws attention to the possibility that Turkey could oppose SDF integration and the risk of the process being sabotaged by Turkey.
Regarding Syria, attention is also drawn to the rising Turkey-Israel rivalry: As the two countries engage in a struggle for influence in Syria, Congress supports Israel and believes that Turkey should be warned to avoid escalating tensions. The report describes processes such as Israel’s strikes on Turkish targets in Syria and the establishment of a “hotline,” while emphasizing the necessity of increasing Turkey-Israel cooperation against potential threats from Iran or the risk of uprisings by regime remnants.
In Russia-Ukraine relations, Turkey’s stance is frequently praised: The grain agreement, drone sales, and closing the straits to warships demonstrate that Turkey has once again proven itself as an indispensable ally, according to Congress. The report particularly highlights Turkey-Ukraine defense agreements and the Baykar factory in Ukraine. However, Turkey’s energy trade with Russia is criticized. As a result, due to continuing energy trade with Russia, the report emphasizes the applicability of the customs tariff that Trump applied to India to Turkey as well.
Greece, Cyprus, Armenia are Congress’s long-term concerns. The report mentions tensions in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Azerbaijan-Armenia peace process. Congress encourages normalization between Turkey and Armenia; however, it opposes a two-state solution in Cyprus. Additionally, the report notes that Turkey’s influence in Africa and the Balkans is increasing every year, without any positive or negative commentary.
Perspective and Congress’s Future Steps
The report’s “Looking to the Future” section summarizes Congress’s dilemma. Is Turkey a strategic partner or a risk? Congress members weigh geopolitical benefits (Middle East, Black Sea, Caucasus); however, caution is advised due to relations with Hamas and Russia. The report views Turkey’s interest in BRICS and SCO as an “eastern tilt” that threatens US interests. Analysts suggest cooperation in defense technology and rare earth minerals; however, they also emphasize that reforms in democratic rights and freedoms and the rule of law must be put forward as conditions.
Congress predicts that the F-35 sale will come to the agenda by the end of 2025 without further delay, and that it will face a choice between the persistent stance of Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman James Risch against selling F-35s to Turkey and the opposite policy of US Ambassador to Ankara Tom Barrack. It foresees that this decision will be made together with issues such as rare earth minerals, energy trade with Russia, and normalization with Israel.
